418 inscriptions
DʿMT and Aksumite texts in their attested scripts, with published translations and exact sources.
418 inscriptions in chronological order
DAE IV no. 53a, printed p. 67; facsimile corresponding to RIÉ 400.RIÉ 400commentary includes a pre-Aksumite comparison or possible assignmentʿAddi ʿAlawti / Qohayto region
This monogram from ʿAddi ʿAlawti / Qohayto region preserves surviving short text or mark.
Sabūḥ
DAE IV no. 53d, printed p. 67; facsimile corresponding to RIÉ 403.RIÉ 403commentary includes a pre-Aksumite comparison or possible assignmentʿAddi ʿAlawti / Qohayto region
This monogram from ʿAddi ʿAlawti / Qohayto region preserves surviving short text or mark.
yrhb- (?)
DAE IV no. 65, printed p. 69; facsimile corresponding to RIÉ 415.RIÉ 415commentary includes a pre-Aksumite comparison or possible assignmentʿAddi ʿAlawti / Qohayto region
This monogram from ʿAddi ʿAlawti / Qohayto region preserves surviving short text or mark.
msq- / sqm-
No verified photograph or facsimile is available here. The cited edition identifies the object.
RIÉ 290around the beginning of the Aksumite periodMatara
This seal from Matara preserves surviving short text or mark.
z h (?)
Robin-Umm Laylā 1Robin-Umm Laylā 1c. 160–190 CEUmm Laylā, Yemen
A tribal agreement to strengthen defences and restore cisterns after Abyssinian forces reached the country.
𐩱𐩩𐩣 𐩥-𐩴𐩣 𐩦𐩲𐩨𐩬 𐩭𐩥𐩡𐩬 𐩴—
RIÉ 180RIÉ 180late 2nd–early 3rd century CEAddi Gelemo, Ethiopia
This complete seven-word Geʿez text on a curved bronze object gives GDR the short title ‘king of Aksum’ and is commonly treated as the earliest surviving indigenous royal inscription of the Aksumite period.
ገደረ ነገሠየ አከሰመ ተበዐለ መዘለተ ለአረገ ወለለመቀ
CIH 308 · Vienna Sem 1 / Gl 1076CIH 308Late 2nd–early 3rd century CEJabal Riyām, Yemen
A Sabaean dedication records an alliance with GDRT, king of Ḥabašat. Several ancient copies preserve this longer version.
𐩲(𐩡)𐩠𐩬 𐩬(𐩠𐩰𐩬) 𐩥-(𐩨)𐩬𐩺-(𐩠)𐩥 𐩦𐩲𐩧𐩣 𐩱𐩥𐩩𐩧 𐩣𐩡𐩫 (𐩪𐩨)[𐩱 𐩨𐩬𐩺 𐩺𐩧]—
CIH 308 bis · Gl 870+872CIH 308 bisLate 2nd–early 3rd century CEJabal Riyām, Yemen
The shorter recension of the Riyām dedication, preserved in several copies. The photograph shows Gl 870+872.
[𐩲𐩡𐩠𐩬 𐩬𐩠𐩰𐩬 𐩥-𐩨𐩬𐩺-𐩠𐩥 𐩦𐩲𐩧𐩣 𐩱𐩥𐩩𐩧 𐩣𐩡𐩫 𐩪𐩨𐩱 𐩨𐩬𐩺]
Gr 210Gr 210Late 2nd–early 3rd century CEJabal Riyām, Yemen
A fragmentary statue base preserves a shorter version of CIH 308, including GDRT and the alliance.
[... ...]
RIÉ 223RIÉ 2233rd century CEMatara, Eritrea
A short memorial inscription states that ʾGZ commissioned the stela for his ancestors and that two named companions transported it.
ዘ ሀወለተ ዘአገበረ አገዘ ለአበወሀ ወሰሀበ መሀዘተ ወአወአለፈ ወጸበለ
No artifact photograph was located in the cited DASI record or the checked edition plates.
Ir 12Early 3rd century CEMaḥram Bilqīs, Yemen
Wfym ʾḏrḥ dedicates a bronze statue and bull after defending Ḥashid during the reign of Shaʿirum Awtar.
𐩥𐩰𐩺𐩣 𐩱𐩹𐩧𐩢 𐩨𐩬 [... ...] 𐩠𐩤𐩬𐩺 𐩱𐩡𐩣𐩤𐩠 𐩻𐩠𐩥𐩬 𐩨𐩲𐩡 𐩱𐩥𐩣 𐩮𐩡𐩣𐩬 𐩥-𐩻𐩥𐩧𐩬 𐩹-𐩹𐩠𐩨𐩬 𐩺𐩥𐩣 𐩠𐩥𐩮𐩩-𐩠𐩥 𐩣𐩧𐩱-𐩠𐩥 𐩦𐩲𐩧𐩣 𐩱𐩥𐩩𐩧 𐩣𐩡𐩫 𐩪𐩨𐩱 𐩥-𐩹-𐩧𐩺𐩵𐩬 𐩡-𐩦𐩧𐩢 𐩥-𐩤𐩧𐩬 𐩨-𐩱𐩥𐩻𐩬 𐩦𐩲𐩨𐩬 𐩢𐩦𐩵𐩣 𐩨-𐩳𐩧 𐩳𐩧𐩧𐩥 𐩱𐩢𐩨𐩦𐩬 𐩥-𐩹-𐩫𐩥𐩬 𐩫𐩥𐩬-𐩠𐩣𐩥 𐩨𐩬 𐩪𐩥𐩠𐩧𐩬 𐩥-𐩭𐩥𐩡𐩬
No artifact photograph was located in the cited DASI record or the checked edition plates.
Ja 631Early 3rd century CEMaḥram Bilqīs, Yemen
Qṭbn ʾwkn records an embassy to GDRT, king of Ḥabašat and the Aksumites, followed by campaigns involving the prince BYGT.
𐩤𐩷𐩨𐩬 𐩱𐩥𐩫𐩬 𐩨𐩬 𐩴𐩧𐩩 𐩱𐩤𐩥𐩡 𐩦𐩲[𐩨𐩬 𐩪𐩣𐩠𐩧𐩣 𐩺𐩠𐩥𐩡𐩵 𐩠𐩤𐩬]—
No artifact photograph was located in the cited DASI record or the checked edition plates.
Ja 635Early 3rd century CEMaḥram Bilqīs, Yemen
A dedication from the Awwām temple recounts military service, including operations involving Abyssinian forces.
[𐩱𐩨𐩫𐩧𐩨 𐩱](𐩢)𐩧𐩪 𐩨𐩬 𐩲𐩨𐩡𐩣 |
Ry 533Ry 533Early 3rd century CERayda, Yemen
Commanders serving Shaʿirum Awtar recount campaigns by land and sea in a dedication to their solar deity.
[... ...]
FB-Maḥram Bilqīs 2FB-Maḥram Bilqīs 2First half of the 3rd century CEMaḥram Bilqīs, Yemen
An Awwām dedication recounts conflict with Abyssinian forces in Sihām and Wādī Ḥaraḍ under Laḥayʿathat Yarkham.
𐩥𐩰𐩺𐩣 𐩱𐩹𐩧𐩢 𐩨𐩬 𐩫𐩨𐩪𐩺𐩣 𐩥-𐩰𐩥𐩡𐩣
The cited edition contains a plate of this inscription; no image is available here.
RIÉ 275Aksumite period; absolute chronology disputedDaqqi Maḥari, Eritrea
A Greek royal dedication names Sembrouthes as great king of the Aksumites and dates the act to his twenty-fourth regnal year.
Βασιλεὺς ἐκ βασι- λέων Ἀξωμει- τῶν μέγας Σεμβρούθης ἐλθὼν καθεί- δρυσε, ἔτους κδ Σεμβρούθου μεγάλου [space] βασιλέως
CIH 314+954CIH 314+9543rd century CEal-ʿAmāyid / ʿArsh Bilqīs, Yemen
Two Sabaean officers dedicate bronze statues and record an embassy from Shammar dhū-Raydān and the tribes of Ḥabašat.
(𐩧𐩨𐩦)[𐩣𐩪](𐩣)( )(𐩺𐩸𐩵) [𐩨𐩬 𐩪𐩱𐩧𐩬 𐩥-𐩣𐩢𐩺𐩡](𐩣) [𐩥]-(𐩣)[𐩥𐩳𐩲𐩣 𐩥]-
CIH 350CIH 3503rd century CEUnknown, Unknown
A damaged dedication recounts campaigns against several opponents, including Ḥabašat.
[... ...]
Ir 19Ir 193rd century CEMaḥram Bilqīs, Yemen
Two qayls dedicate bronze statues after campaigns of Ilsharaḥ Yaḥḍub and Yaʾzil Bayyin against Ḥabašat and their allies.
[𐩫𐩧𐩨𐩲𐩻𐩩 𐩺𐩵𐩰𐩻 𐩥-𐩪𐩲𐩵𐩲𐩻𐩩]𐩧 𐩺𐩪𐩫𐩧 𐩨𐩬𐩺 𐩴𐩧𐩩 𐩥-
Ir 69 · facsimileIr 693rd century CEal-ʿAmāyid / ʿArsh Bilqīs, Yemen
A Barʾān dedication combines favourable oracles, diplomacy with Ḥimyar, and campaigns against Abyssinian forces.
𐩥𐩠𐩨𐩱𐩥𐩣 𐩺𐩱𐩹𐩰 𐩹-𐩴𐩵𐩬𐩣 𐩥-𐩭𐩹𐩥𐩩 𐩥-
Ja 574Ja 5743rd century CEMaḥram Bilqīs, Yemen
Two Sabaean kings dedicate silver statues after fighting Abyssinian forces and their allies in the western lowlands.
𐩱𐩡𐩦𐩧(𐩢) 𐩺𐩢𐩳𐩨 [𐩥-](𐩱𐩭𐩺)-(𐩠)[𐩥 𐩺𐩱𐩸𐩡 𐩨𐩺𐩬 𐩣𐩡𐩫𐩺 𐩪𐩨𐩱 𐩥-](𐩹)-(𐩧𐩺𐩵)𐩬 𐩨𐩬𐩺 𐩰𐩧𐩲𐩣 𐩺—
No artifact photograph was located in the cited DASI record or the checked edition plates.
Ja 5753rd century CEMaḥram Bilqīs, Yemen
A fragmentary royal dedication recounts a campaign from Ṣanʿāʾ into Sahratān and the coastal country.
𐩱𐩡𐩦𐩧𐩢 𐩺𐩢𐩳𐩨 𐩥-𐩱𐩭𐩺-𐩠𐩥 𐩺𐩱𐩸𐩡 𐩨𐩺𐩬 𐩣𐩡𐩫𐩺 𐩪𐩨𐩱 𐩥-𐩹-𐩧𐩺𐩵𐩬 𐩨𐩬𐩺 𐩰𐩧𐩲𐩣 𐩺𐩬𐩠𐩨 𐩣𐩡𐩫 𐩪𐩨𐩱( 𐩠)[𐩤𐩬𐩺𐩺 ... ... 𐩨]—
Ja 576+577Ja 576+5773rd century CEMaḥram Bilqīs, Yemen
A long dedication of Ilsharaḥ Yaḥḍub and Yaʾzil Bayyin recounts wars, hostages, and conflict involving Abyssinian forces.
𐩱𐩡𐩦𐩧𐩢 𐩺𐩢𐩳𐩨 𐩥-𐩱(𐩭𐩺)-(𐩠𐩥)[ 𐩺𐩱𐩸𐩡 𐩨𐩺𐩬 𐩣𐩡𐩫𐩺 𐩪𐩨𐩱 ]𐩥-𐩹-𐩧𐩺𐩵𐩬 𐩨𐩬𐩺 𐩰𐩧𐩲𐩣 𐩺𐩬𐩠𐩨 𐩣𐩡𐩫 𐩪𐩨𐩱 [𐩠𐩤𐩬𐩺𐩺 𐩱𐩡𐩣𐩤𐩠-𐩻𐩠𐩥𐩬-𐩨𐩲𐩡-𐩱𐩥𐩣 𐩩𐩪]𐩲𐩩𐩬(([𐩪𐩨]𐩲𐩩𐩬)) 𐩱𐩮𐩡𐩣𐩬 𐩱𐩡𐩺 𐩮𐩧𐩰𐩬 𐩢𐩣𐩵𐩣 𐩨-𐩹𐩩 𐩠𐩥𐩦𐩲 𐩥-𐩠𐩧𐩵𐩱𐩬 𐩲𐩨𐩵-𐩠𐩥 𐩱𐩡𐩦𐩧𐩢 𐩺𐩢𐩳𐩨 𐩨-𐩦𐩫𐩧 𐩫𐩡 𐩱𐩭𐩣𐩪 𐩥-𐩱𐩦𐩲𐩨 𐩩𐩬𐩦𐩱𐩥 𐩨-𐩲𐩡𐩺-𐩠𐩣𐩥 𐩳𐩧𐩣 𐩨𐩬 𐩱𐩦𐩲𐩨 𐩦𐩱𐩣𐩩 𐩥-𐩺𐩣𐩬𐩩 𐩥-𐩨[𐩢]—
Ja 585Ja 5853rd century CEMaḥram Bilqīs, Yemen
Two brothers thank ʾAlmaqah for their father’s return after an embassy to the Abyssinians and imprisonment at S³wm.
𐩺𐩮𐩨𐩢 𐩱𐩦𐩥𐩲 𐩥-𐩱𐩭𐩺-𐩠𐩥 𐩲𐩧𐩨𐩣 𐩨𐩬𐩥 𐩹-𐩲𐩨𐩡𐩣 𐩥-𐩠𐩲(𐩡𐩡)( )[𐩠𐩤𐩬]—
Source register
RIÉ 1–443, with separately numbered text versions, supplements, and Arabian witnesses from the checked corpus and DASI. Dates and uncertain identifications follow the cited editions; missing texts, translations, and images are recorded below.
61–120 of 512 entries. Copies and language versions retain their own references.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Matara, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Matara during the excavation of the mound B · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Surviving dedicatory fragment. The beginning, ending, and part of the divine name are lost; brackets retain the edition’s restoration.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Matara during the excavation of the mound B · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Uninterpreted inscription. The edition offers no interpretation.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Matara during the excavation of the mound B · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Uninterpreted inscription. The edition offers no interpretation.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Matara, Senafe area, Eritrea; excavated in Mound B room 33, not in situ · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Cultic or royal names; DʿMT is not named in the surviving text.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Matara, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Matara, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Matara, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Matara during the excavation of the mound E2 · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Probable personal name. The same letter sequence names the tribe Bakīl elsewhere, but the edition considers a personal name more likely here.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Matara during the excavation of the mound E 1, locus 43 · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Uninterpreted inscription. The edition offers no interpretation.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Matara during the excavation of the monument C · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Probable mason’s mark. No linguistic translation is given.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Matara during the excavation of the mound F · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Possible mason’s mark. No linguistic translation is given.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Matara · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Name; other marks uninterpreted. Two m signs on the right-hand stone remain uninterpreted.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Dibdib · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Published translation of the three-line dedication. DWL may designate a locality, region, people, or tribe; the edition does not resolve which.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Dibdib, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Feqya, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Feqya, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Feqya, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Feqya, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Feqya, engraved on a stone · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Surviving dedication with editorial restoration. The lost verb could have been singular or plural. <This stone> is supplied from the object, not a surviving word.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Feqya, engraved on a stone · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Published translation of the surviving three-line dedication. <This stone> is supplied from the object. HYW is probably a co-dedicant.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Feqya, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Feqya, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Feqya, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Feqya, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Feqya, engraved on a stone · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Uncertain personal-name fragment. A damaged word may be a personal name; the letters in the second line remain uninterpreted.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Feqya, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Feqya, Senafe, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Barachit, Debub, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Early 1st millennium–5th/4th c. BCE (DASI Period A) · Dera, Eritrea · Early Sabaic (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
Early highland dedication, private inscription, or fragment.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Tokhonda, engraved on a stone · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Published translation of two short texts. The divine names in Text II are probable readings; the etymology of YGDY is uncertain.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Tokhonda, engraved on a stone · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Probable personal name. The name is otherwise unknown; its proposed compound structure has no convincing etymology.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Tokhonda, engraved on a stone · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Preferred identification within an uncertain text. Drewes prefers a personal-name interpretation of ḤYWT over Littmann’s tentative ‘for the life of ʾAgʷabat’; the exact form and etymology of the other names remain doubtful.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Tokhonda, engraved on a stone · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Alternative readings of a personal name. Both readings are offered; the root is secure but the final consonant is not.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Kelette Afa, engraved on a stone · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Published translation. GʿSY may be a local name; its etymology is uncertain.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi, engraved on a stone · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Preserved personal name. The same name occurs in RIÉ 91 and 124–126.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi, engraved on a stone · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Two preserved personal names. The etymology of ḤDBR remains uncertain.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Two partly legible names from four texts. Only the names in Texts II and III are more or less legible; the reading and derivation of both remain doubtful.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Two surviving words. Only the kinship phrase and name remain legible.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Preserved personal name. The same name occurs in RIÉ 97 and has South Arabian parallels.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Published translation. WDGLY is considered a local name of uncertain etymology; MʿDʾL is well attested in South Arabia.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Alternative readings of a personal name. Both readings are possible; the inscription does not decide between them.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Preserved personal name. The same name occurs in RIÉ 94.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Preserved personal name. Its grammatical form and interpretation remain uncertain.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Surviving first line and proposed name gloss. The patronymic is lost after the kinship term.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Alternative readings of a personal name. Neither reading is otherwise attested as a South Arabian personal name.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Preserved personal name. The edition compares related names in RIÉ 9, 12, and 79.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Probable local personal name. Drewes rejects Jamme’s reading and the translation ‘ʾAbih has slept [here].’
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Uninterpreted fragment. The fragmentary text does not permit an interpretation.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Partly legible personal name. A personal name is probable, but it is only partly readable and is not transcribed securely.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Uninterpreted text. The edition offers no interpretation.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Published translation. The verb is interpreted from the root wdd, ‘love’; the linguistic classification remains discussed in the commentary.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Laʿlay ʿAddi · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Two probable personal names. Both etymologies remain uncertain.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Ruba Kodo · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Published formula with abbreviated divine name. The preserved letters DḤ are understood as an abbreviation of the goddess DṮ ḤMN.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Ruba Kodo · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Possible remains of a known formula. The graffito is incomplete and difficult to read; the formula depends on the tentative reading of its first two letters.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Ruba Kodo · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Probable personal name and lexical gloss. The related Arabic root can also mean ‘be indulgent.’
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Ruba Kodo · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Alternative readings of a personal name. Neither reading is otherwise attested in South Arabia; QṢRY has a different possible derivation.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Ruba Kodo · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Uncertain possible personal name. If the word is read ḥwʾr, it may share a root with WʿRN, but the reading itself is uncertain.
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Ruba Kodo · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Probable personal name and preferred gloss. The edition prefers derivation from the Ethiopian root ʾkl, ‘suffice,’ over a root meaning ‘eat’; a pronominal suffix would yield ‘it will suffice for him.’
Pre-Aksumite period; precise date uncertain · Ruba Kodo · Early highland inscription; Old South Arabian alphabet
Probable personal name. The final r is not certain and the exact meaning of the underlying verb remains unresolved.
